SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
IN PRE- INDEPENDENCE ERA
RESHMA VARGHESE
reshmavarghesepullely@gmail.com
Introduction
India has a rich legacy of scientific ideas. A desire to know the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and observation have always generated scientific temper .This had led to the assumption that truth lay in the real world with all its diversity and complexity. Ancient india contributed immensely for scientific development.During medieval period, Science and Technology in India developed two facets: one concerned with the already chartered course of earlier traditions and other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European impact.
Development of science in ancient India
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy made a great progress in ancient period.The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is aconcise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations
ARYABHATTA
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets.In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy.Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
KANADA
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible.
Mathematics
. The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry. The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.
BAUDHAYAN
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which
were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by him. pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What isknown as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
BRAHMGUPTA
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He
introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm
Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
BHASKARA CHARYA
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka.
He is famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor, translated
Lilavati and made this great work known to the world
MEDICINE
Medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever,cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases
mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells. From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhitaby Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he also mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine.
SUSRUTA
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose or ears was
a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In
Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern surgeons while doing plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.
YOGA AND PATANJALI
. The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets in to motion the force that purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as mental. Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spritiual balance.
METALLURGY
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of
alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date.
SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
MATHEMATICS
Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this period. Narayana Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works in Mathematics – Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa. Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika , and Lilavati Vyakhya. These were famous treatises which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent and cotangent. Nilakantha
Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which also contains rules of trigonometrical
functions. Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini - a commentary on lilavati - containing a number of illustrations. Krishna of the Valhalla family brought out Navankura on the Bijaganit of Bhaskara-II and elaboration of the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and second orders. Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. Akbar ordered to make Mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system . Naisiru’d –din-at –tusi, was another scholar of Mathematics.
CHEMISTRY
In the medieval period, An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna,Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore became well known centres of paper production. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery,another application of Chemistry. The Indian craftspersons learnt the technique in evolved suitable explosive composition. The work Sukraniti attributed to Sukracarya contains a description of how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal type of fire works included those which pierce through air, produce sparks of fire, blaze with various colours and end with explosion. The work Ain –I-akbari speaks of the regulation of the Perfume office of Akbar. The attar (perfume) of roses was a popular perfume, which is supposed to have been discovered by Nurjehan
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period. In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an astronomical, instrument ‘Yantraja’. Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced commentary of Aryabhatiyaa. Kamalakar studied the Islamic astronomical ideas. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur was a patron of Astronomy. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varansasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
CONCLUSION
Science and technology development in India before independence was tremendous.Major changes and inventions occur in those times. even though technology is not developed as modern times inventions and achievements were resulted from the society.it shows our country have a great heritage of scientific temper.
REFERENCE
Wikipedia. History of science
Indian culture and heritage secondary course
MCQ QUESTIONS
Which book mentions plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes in Ancient India?
a]Charakasamhitha b]Susrutha samhitha
c]Both a and b d]None of the above
sulvasutra written by
a]Baudhayan b]Aryabhatta
c]Susrutha d]Kanada
The subject __________________ was ordered by Akbar to be a compulsory subject of study at primary stage.
a] Mathematics b]Chemistry
c]Biology d]Physics
Name the books which became predecessors of the development of Indian
Medicine?
a] Aryabhatiyam b] Susrutha samhitha
C ]Charakasamhitha d]Both b and c
The treatises of Ayurveda written during the medieval period.
a]Sarangdhara Samhita b] Chikitsasamgraha
C] Yagaratbajara d]All the above
Who discovered zero?
A] Kanada b]Aryabhatta
C]Bhaskaracharya d]Susrutha
Answers:1.c, 2.a, 3.a, 4.d, 5.d, 6.b
IN PRE- INDEPENDENCE ERA
RESHMA VARGHESE
reshmavarghesepullely@gmail.com
Introduction
India has a rich legacy of scientific ideas. A desire to know the unknown, accompanied with experimentation and observation have always generated scientific temper .This had led to the assumption that truth lay in the real world with all its diversity and complexity. Ancient india contributed immensely for scientific development.During medieval period, Science and Technology in India developed two facets: one concerned with the already chartered course of earlier traditions and other with the new influences which came up as a result of Islamic and European impact.
Development of science in ancient India
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy made a great progress in ancient period.The movement of planets came to be emphasized and closely observed. Jyotishvedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is aconcise text containing 121 verses. It contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses. The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time. Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which became a guideline for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India. Aryabhatta’s theories showed a distinct departure from astrology which stressed more on beliefs than scientific explorations
ARYABHATTA
Aryabhatta was a fifth century mathematician, astronomer, astrologer and physicist. He was a pioneer in the field of mathematics. At the age of 23, he wrote Aryabhattiya, which is a summary of mathematics of his time. There are four sections in this scholarly work.In the first section he describes the method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets.In the second section, we find difficult questions from topics of modern day Mathematics such as number theory, geometry, trigonometry and Beejganita (algebra). The remaining two sections are on astronomy.Aryabhatta showed that zero was not a numeral only but also a symbol and a concept.Discovery of zero enabled Aryabhatta to find out the exact distance between the earth and the moon. The discovery of zero also opened up a new dimension of negative numerals.
KANADA
Kanad was a sixth century scientist of Vaisheshika School, one of the six systems of Indian philosophy. His original name was Aulukya. He got the name Kanad, because even as a child, he was interested in very minute particles called “kana”. His atomic theory can be a match to any modern atomic theory. According to Kanad, material universe is made up of kanas, (anu/atom) which cannot be seen through any human organ. These cannot be further subdivided. Thus, they are indivisible and indestructible.
Mathematics
. The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC, introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three main contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced the Roman numerals. Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry. The Surya Siddhanta is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is another pioneering work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion. Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.
BAUDHAYAN
Baudhayan was the first one ever to arrive at several concepts in Mathematics, which
were later rediscovered by the western world. The value of pi was first calculated by him. pi is useful in calculating the area and circumference of a circle. What isknown as Pythagoras theorem today is already found in Baudhayan’s Sulva Sutra, which was written several years before the age of Pythagoras.
BRAHMGUPTA
In 7th century, Brahmgupta took mathematics to heights far beyond others. In his methods of multiplication, he used place value in almost the same way as it is used today. He
introduced negative numbers and operations on zero into mathematics. He wrote Brahm
Sputa Siddantika through which the Arabs came to know our mathematical system.
BHASKARA CHARYA
Bhaskaracharya was the leading light of 12th Century. He was born at Bijapur, Karnataka.
He is famous for his book Siddanta Shiromani. It is divided into four sections: Lilavati (Arithmetic), Beejaganit (Algebra), Goladhyaya (Sphere) and Grahaganit (mathematics of planets). Bhaskara introduced Chakrawat Method or the Cyclic Method to solve algebraic equations. This method was rediscovered six centuries later by European mathematicians, who called it inverse cycle. In the nineteenth century, an English man, James Taylor, translated
Lilavati and made this great work known to the world
MEDICINE
Medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever,cough, consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases
mentioned. The diseases are said to be caused by the demons and spirits entering one’s body. The remedies recommended were replete with magical charms and spells. From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Taranasi emerged as centres of medicine and learning. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhitaby Charak and Sushrutsamhita by Sushruta. How important was their work can be understood from the knowledge that it reached as far as China, Central Asia through translations in various languages.
The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around fourth century AD. Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as “the highest division of the healing arts and least liable to fallacy”. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. Along with this he also mentions the methods of operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. The surgeons in ancient India were familiar with plastic surgery (repair of noses, ears and lips). Sushruta mentions 760 plants. All parts of the plant roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. Stress was laid on diet (e.g. salt free diet for nephrites). Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of Indian medicine.
SUSRUTA
Susruta’s greatest contribution was in the fields of Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery) and
Ophthalmic surgery (removal of cataracts). In those days, cutting of nose or ears was
a common punishment. Restoration of these or limbs lost in wars was a great blessing. In
Susruta Samhita, there is a very accurate step-by-step description of these operations.Surprisingly, the steps followed by Susruta are strikingly similar to those followed by modern surgeons while doing plastic surgery. Susruta Samhita also gives a description of 101 instruments used in surgery. Some serious operations performed included taking foetus out of the womb, repairing the damaged rectum, removing stone from the bladder, etc.
YOGA AND PATANJALI
. The science of Yoga was developed in ancient India as an allied science of Ayurveda for healing without medicine at the physical and mental level. The term Yoga has been derived from the Sanskrit work Yoktra. Its literal meaning is “yoking the mind to the inner self after detaching it from the outer subjects of senses”. Like all other sciences, it has its roots in the Vedas. It defines chitta i.e. dissolving thoughts, emotions and desires of a person’s consciousness and achieving a state of equilibrium. It sets in to motion the force that purifies and uplifts the consciousness to divine realization. Yoga is physical as well as mental. Physical yoga is called Hathyoga. Generally, it aims at removing a disease and restoring healthy condition to the body. Rajayoga is mental yoga. Its goal is self realization and liberation from bondage by achieving physical mental, emotional and spritiual balance.
METALLURGY
The glazed potteries and bronze and copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy. The vedic people were aware of fermenting grain and fruits, tanning leather and the process of dyeing.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of
alloys like brass and bronze were taking place. The iron pillar in the Qutub Minar complex is indicative of the high quality of alloying that was being done. Alkali and acids were produced and utilised for making medicines. This technology was also used for other crafts like producing dyes and colours. Textile dyeing was popular. The Ajanta frescoes reflect on the quality of colour. These paintings have survived till date.
SCIENCE IN MEDIEVAL INDIA
MATHEMATICS
Several works in the field of Mathematics were produced during this period. Narayana Pandit, son of Narsimha Daivajna was well known for his works in Mathematics – Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa. Gangadhara, in Gujarat, wrote Lilavati Karamdipika, Suddhantadipika , and Lilavati Vyakhya. These were famous treatises which gave rules for trigonometrical terms like sine, cosine tangent and cotangent. Nilakantha
Somasutvan produced Tantrasamgraha, which also contains rules of trigonometrical
functions. Ganesa Daivajna produced Buddhivilasini - a commentary on lilavati - containing a number of illustrations. Krishna of the Valhalla family brought out Navankura on the Bijaganit of Bhaskara-II and elaboration of the rules of indeterminate equations of the first and second orders. Nilakantha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, introducing a large number of Persian technical terms. Faizi, at the behest of Akbar, translated Bhaskara’s Bijaganit. Akbar ordered to make Mathematics as a subject of study, among others in the educational system . Naisiru’d –din-at –tusi, was another scholar of Mathematics.
CHEMISTRY
In the medieval period, An important application of Chemistry was in the production of paper. Kashmir, Sialkot, Zafarabad, Patna,Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore became well known centres of paper production. The paper making technique was more or less the same throughout the country differing only in preparation of the pulp from different raw materials. The Mughals knew the technique of production of gunpowder and its use in gunnery,another application of Chemistry. The Indian craftspersons learnt the technique in evolved suitable explosive composition. The work Sukraniti attributed to Sukracarya contains a description of how gunpowder can be prepared using saltpeter, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios for use in different types of guns.. The principal type of fire works included those which pierce through air, produce sparks of fire, blaze with various colours and end with explosion. The work Ain –I-akbari speaks of the regulation of the Perfume office of Akbar. The attar (perfume) of roses was a popular perfume, which is supposed to have been discovered by Nurjehan
ASTRONOMY
Astronomy was another field that flourished during this period. In astronomy, a number of commentaries dealing with the already established astronomical notions appeared. Mehendra Suri, a court astronomer of Emperor Firoz Shah, developed an astronomical, instrument ‘Yantraja’. Paramesvara and Mahabhaskariya, both in Kerala, were famous families of astronomers and almanac-makers. Nilakantha Somasutvan produced commentary of Aryabhatiyaa. Kamalakar studied the Islamic astronomical ideas. He was an authority on Islamic knowledge. Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh-II of Jaipur was a patron of Astronomy. He set up the five astronomical observatories in Delhi, Ujjain, Varansasi, Mathura and Jaipur.
CONCLUSION
Science and technology development in India before independence was tremendous.Major changes and inventions occur in those times. even though technology is not developed as modern times inventions and achievements were resulted from the society.it shows our country have a great heritage of scientific temper.
REFERENCE
Wikipedia. History of science
Indian culture and heritage secondary course
MCQ QUESTIONS
Which book mentions plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes in Ancient India?
a]Charakasamhitha b]Susrutha samhitha
c]Both a and b d]None of the above
sulvasutra written by
a]Baudhayan b]Aryabhatta
c]Susrutha d]Kanada
The subject __________________ was ordered by Akbar to be a compulsory subject of study at primary stage.
a] Mathematics b]Chemistry
c]Biology d]Physics
Name the books which became predecessors of the development of Indian
Medicine?
a] Aryabhatiyam b] Susrutha samhitha
C ]Charakasamhitha d]Both b and c
The treatises of Ayurveda written during the medieval period.
a]Sarangdhara Samhita b] Chikitsasamgraha
C] Yagaratbajara d]All the above
Who discovered zero?
A] Kanada b]Aryabhatta
C]Bhaskaracharya d]Susrutha
Answers:1.c, 2.a, 3.a, 4.d, 5.d, 6.b
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